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Undergarment

Undergarment

] Undergarments, also called "underwear", "undercrackers", "lingerie" (undergarments for women), or sometimes "intimate clothing", are clothes worn next to the skin, usually under other clothes. Some clothing is specifically underwear, while T-shirts and some shorts are suitable as underwear as well as outer clothing. Suitability as outer clothing is, apart from outdoor or indoor climate, largely a social and sometimes even a legal matter. One of the criteria for shorts not to be suitable as outer clothing may be that it has a fly that avoids exposure of the genitals just by an overlap of cloth, without buttons, etc. In addition to keeping outer garments from soiling, undergarments are worn for a variety of reasons: warmth, comfort and hygiene being the most common. Undergarments are often used for modesty or erotic display; sometimes both of these motivations are simultaneously present. Undergarments can also have religious significance, as in the special temple garment worn by followers of the LDS Church (Mormons). Some Jews use clothing that should neither touch the skin, nor be used as outer clothing: tallit katan or tallet ketannah or tzitzit ("Every Jewish boy and man is supposed to wear Tzitzis every day. If this is not possible, try and wear it every time you go to synagogue. Tzitzis is an undergarment." [http://jewishbazaar.com/BAZAAR/TzizitInfo.HTM]). The two major types of men's underpants are boxer shorts (shorts-length and loose) and briefs (smaller and tighter), which are also referred to as Y-fronts in British English. See lingerie for the types and various styles of women's undergarments.

History

Ancient history

The loincloth is the simplest form of underwear; it was probably the first undergarment worn by human beings. A loincloth may take three major forms. The first, and simplest, is simply a long strip of material which is passed between the legs and then around the waist. The ancient Hawaiian malo was of this form, as are several styles of the Japanese fundoshi. Another form is usually called a cache-sexe: a triangle of cloth is provided with strings or loops, which are used to fasten the triangle between the legs and over the genitals. The alternate form is more skirt-like: a cloth is wrapped around the hips several times and then fastened with a girdle. In warmer climates, the loincloth may be the only clothing worn (making it effectively not an undergarment), but in colder temperatures, the loincloth often forms the basis of a person's clothing and is covered by other garments. In most ancient civilizations, this was the only undergarment available (King Tutankhamun was buried with 145 of them). The loincloth continues to be worn by people around the world (it is the traditional form of undergarment in many Asian societies, for example). Men are said to have worn loincloths in ancient Greece and Rome. It is not clear whether or not Greek women wore undergarments. Roman women sometimes wore wrapped breastcloths or brassieres made of soft leather. They also seem to have worn loincloths and possibly something like panties. Decorative frescoes survive showing semi-nude women cavorting in breastwraps and loincloths [http://www.villaivlilla.com/underwear-w.htm]. Any cloth used may have been wool, linen, or linsey-woolsey blend. Only the upper classes could have afforded imported silk.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

Male undergarments

In the Middle Ages, men's underwear became looser fitting. The loincloth was replaced by loose, trouser-like clothing called braies, which the wearer stepped into and then laced or tied around the waist and legs at about mid-calf. Wealthier men often wore chausses as well, which only covered the legs. By the Renaissance, the chausses became form-fitting like modern Hose, and the braies became shorter to accommodate longer styles of chausses. However, chausses and many braies designs were not intended to be covered up by other clothing, so they are not actually underwear in the strictest sense. Braies were usually fitted with a flap in the front that buttoned or tied closed. This codpiece allowed men to urinate without having to remove the braies completely. Henry VIII of England began padding his own codpiece, which caused a spiraling trend of larger and larger codpieces that only ended by the end of the 16th century. The modern men's shirt appeared during this era, but it was originally an undergarment. Renaissance noblemen also adopted the doublet, a vest-like garment tied together in the front and worn under other clothing.

Female undergarments

Medieval women usually wore a close-fitting garment called a shift, smock, or chemise, sometimes coupled with braies-like leg wrappings. They may have worn petticoats over the shift and under the dress. Quilted petticoats could be worn during the winter. Elaborately-quilted petticoats might be displayed by a cut-away dress, in which case they became a skirt rather than an undergarment. During the 16th century, the farthingale was popular. This was a petticoat stiffened with reed or willow rods so that it stood out from a woman's body, like a cone extending from the waist. Corsets also began to be worn about this time. At first they were called pair of bodies, which may refer both to a stiffened bodice designed to be seen, and a bodice stiffened with buckram, reeds, canes, whalebone, etc., worn underneath another, decorative, bodice. These were not the small-waisted, curvy corsets familiar from the Victorian period, but straight-lined corsets that flattened the bust. There is a myth that Crusaders worried about the fidelity of their wives forced them to wear chastity belts. There is no reference, image, or surviving belt to support this story.

Enlightenment and Industrial Age

The inventions of the spinning jenny machines and the cotton gin in the second half of the 18th century made cotton fabrics widely available. This allowed factories to mass-produce underwear, and for the first time, people began buying undergarments in stores rather than making them at home. The standard undergarment of the 19th century for men, women, and children was the union suit, which provided coverage from the wrists to the ankles (this "second skin" style is more commonly known as long johns today). The union suits of the era were usually made of knitted material and included a drop flap in the back to ease visits to the toilet. In the 18th century, women began wearing stays http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corset_periods#Stays.2C_1550.3F_to_about_1890, a type of undergarment that wraps around the torso from behind and ties closed in the front. These stays were often stiffened in the 1750s and 1760s, when they became known as the corset. Different colors became available (though linings remained white). The corset remained popular with aristocratic women well into the 19th century, when the design was modified to fit much more tightly. A tiny waist came to be seen as a symbol of beauty, and the corsets were laced with whalebone or steel to accomplish this. This caused great pain to most women, and some even suffered damage to internal organs and bones as a result. These later corsets did not wrap around the breasts as their predecessors had. Breasts were thrust outward by many corset designs, but were otherwise allowed to hang loose. The corset was usually worn over a thin shirt-like garment of cotton or muslin called a shift. In the latter half of the 19th Century, long drawers called pantalettes or pantaloons often accompanied the shift to keep the legs out of sight as skirts styles got shorter. The other major female undergarment of this period was the Crinoline petticoat. This underskirt served a similar purpose to the farthingales of the Renaissance, only the petticoat kept skirts full by means of stiff fabrics and numerous layers rather than hoops. It also differed in that it was fairly inexpensive, and therefore commoners and aristocrats alike could afford to wear it (though wealthy women could usually afford petticoats of finer material and of more elaborate design). The bustle, a frame or pad worn over the buttocks to enhance their shape, had been used off and on by women for two centuries, but it reached the height of its popularity 1880, and went out of fashion for good in the 1890s.

1900s

By the early 20th century, the mass-produced undergarment industry was booming, and competition forced producers to come up with all sorts of innovative and gimmicky designs to compete. The Hanes company emerged from this boom and quickly established itself as a top manufacturer of union suits. Textile technology continued to improve, and the time to make a single union suit dropped from days to minutes. Meanwhile, designers of women's undergarments relaxed the corset. The invention of new, flexible but supportive materials allowed them to remove the whalebone and steel while still providing support.

1910s

The increase in the number of underwear manufacturers necessitated the birth of undergarment advertising. The first underwear print advertisement in the United States ran in the Saturday Evening Post in 1911 and featured oil paintings by J.C. Leyendecker of the "Kenosha Klosed Krotch". Early underwear advertisements placed emphasis on durability and comfort; fashion was never a selling point. By the end of the 1910s, Chalmers Knitting Company split the union suit into upper and lower sections, effectively inventing the modern undershirt and drawers. Women wore lacier versions of this basic duo known as the camisole and drawers. In 1913, a New York socialite named Mary Phelps Jacob changed women's fashion forever when she cobbled the first brassiere together by tying two handkerchiefs together with ribbon. Jacob's original intention was to cover the whalebone sticking out of her corset, which was visible through her sheer dress. Jacob began making brassieres for her family and friends, and word of mouth soon spread about the garment. By 1914, Jacob had a patent for her design and was marketing it throughout the United States. Although women had worn brassiere-like garments years past, Jacob's was the first to be successfully marketed and widely adopted. By the end of the decade, trouser-like "bloomers" (popularized by Amelia Jenks Bloomer [1818-1894] but invented by Elizabeth Smith Miller) gained popularity with the so-called Gibson girls who enjoyed more athletic pursuits such as bicycling and tennis. This new female athleticism helped push the corset out of style, as well. The other major factor in the corset's demise was the fact that metal was in short supply in much of the world during World War I. Steel-laced corsets were dropped in favor of the brassiere. Meanwhile, the soldiers of World War I were issued button-front shorts as underwear. The buttons attached to a separate piece of cloth, or yoke, sewn to the front of the garment, and tightness of fit was adjusted by means of ties on the sides. This design proved so popular that it began to supplant the union suit in popularity by the end of the war. Garments of rayon also became widely available in the post-war period.

1920s

In the 1920s, manufacturers shifted emphasis from durability to comfort. Union suit ads raved about "patented" new designs that reduced the number of buttons and increased accessibility. Most of these experimental designs had to do with new ways to hold closed the crotch flap common on most union suits and drawers. A new woven cotton fabric called nainsook gained popularity in the 1920s for its durability. Retailers also began selling preshrunk undergarments. Women's bloomers became much shorter and stockings covered the legs instead. The shorter bloomers became looser and less supportive as the boyish flapper look came into fashion. By the end of the decade, they came to be known as step-ins, very much like modern panties but with wider legs, worn for the increased flexibility they afforded. As dancing became a favorite pastime of young flappers, the garter belt was invented to keep stockings from falling. Nevertheless, the increased sexuality of the flapper also made underwear sexier than ever before. It was the flappers who ushered in the era of lingerie. A Russian immigrant named Ida Rosenthal further developed the brassiere in this decade when she introduced modern cup sizes in 1928 for her company, Maidenform.

1930s

Modern men's underwear was largely an invention of the 1930s. On January 19, 1935 Coopers Inc. sold the world's first briefs in Chicago, Illinois. The company placed a Y-shaped front and overlapping fly on knitted drawers in both short and long styles. They dubbed the design the "Jockey" since it offered a degree of support that had previously only been available from the jockstrap (the company itself would later adopt the name Jockey, as well). Jockey briefs proved so popular that over 30,000 pairs were sold within three months of their introduction. Meanwhile, other companies began selling buttonless drawers fitted with an elastic waistband, the first true boxer shorts (named for their resemblance to the shorts worn by professional fighters). Scovil Manufacturing also introduced the snap fastener at this time, which became a popular addition to various kinds of undergarments. Women of this decade brought the corset back, now called the girdle. The garment lacked the whalebone and metal supports and usually came with a brassiere (now usually called a bra) and often garters attached.

1940s

During World War II, elastic waistbands and metal snaps gave way once again to button fasteners due to rubber and metal shortages. Undergarments were harder to find, as well, since soldiers abroad had priority to get them. At war's end, Jockey and Hanes remained the industry leader in the United States, but Cluett, Peabody and Company would make a name for itself when it introduced a preshrinking process called Sanforization, which came to be licensed by most major manufacturers. Meanwhile, some women readopted the corset once again, now called the waspie for the wasp-shaped waistline it gave the wearer. Many women began wearing the strapless bra, as well, which gained popularity for its ability to push the breasts up and enhance cleavage.

1950s and 1960s

In the 1950s, underwear manufacturers began marketing printed and colored garments. What had once been a simple, white piece of clothing not to be shown in public suddenly became a fashion statement. The manufacturers also experimented with rayon and newer fabrics like dacron and nylon. By 1960, men's underwear was regularly printed in loud patterns or with images ranging from messages to cartoon characters. Women's undergarments began to emphasize the breasts instead of the waist in the 1950s. The decade saw the introduction of the bullet bra, which featured pointed cups. Fredericks of Hollywood's push-up bra finally hit it big in this decade as well. Meanwhile, women's panties had become even more colorful and decorative, and by the mid-Sixties were also available in two smaller, more abbreviated styles called the hip-hugger and the bikini (after the island of that name), frequently in sheer nylon fabric. Panty hose, also called "tights" in British English, which combined panties and hose into one garment, made their first appearance in 1959, invented by Glen Raven Mills of North Carolina. The company later introduced seamless panty hose in the 1965, spurred by the popularity of the miniskirt.

Present day

Underwear as fashion matured in the 1970s and 1980s, and underwear advertisers forgot about comfort and durability, at least in advertising. Sex became the main selling point, bringing to fruition a trend that had been building since at least the flapper era (underwear is the last barrier before nudity, and thus it acts as a sort of gatekeeper to sex).
- Performers in the 1980s such as Madonna and Cyndi Lauper also got into the act, often wearing undergarments on top of other clothes. Later, in the 1990s, hip hop stars would popularize a similar style, known as the sag, which allowed loosely fitting blue jeans or shorts to droop low, exposing the underwear. In fact, in the case of Mark Wahlberg, it was his success as underwear model for Calvin Klein (pioneering in sexy exposure of male flesh) that allowed him a double launch to showbiz fame as the first white hip hop star and as a respectable Hollywood hunk.
- Although it was worn for decades by exotic dancers, the thong first gained popularity in South America, particularly in Brazil, in the 1980s. It was originally a style of swimsuit made so that the back of the suit is so thin that it disappears between the buttocks. By the 1990s, the design had made its way to most of the Western World, and thong underwear became popular. Today, thong underwear is one of the fastest selling styles available among women and is even gaining some popularity among men.
- In the 1990s, retailers started selling boxer briefs, which take the longer shape of boxers but maintain the tightness of briefs. Though marketed as a new design, these are actually quite similar to the bottom half of the two-part union suits worn in the 1910s.

Underwear styles and function

Today, there are many options in underwear available to men. These include:
- boxer style (at or near true waist, leg sections extending to thighs)
- woven boxer (traditional)
- knit boxer (like traditional but with more fabric give)
- boxer brief (also knit; more form-fitting)
- pouch boxer brief (boxer briefs but with pouch for genitals rather than access flap)
- athletic-style (skin-tight, usually with no access pouch or flap; like short tights; a variety also is bike shorts)
- brief style (knit fabric, with access pouch or flap; usually at or near true waist, leg bands at tops of thighs)
- traditional brief (vertical flap)
- double seat brief or double back brief
- diagonal flap brief
- pouch brief
- low-cut/low-rise brief
- bikini brief (usually lower than true waist, often at hips, usually no access pouch or flap, legs bands at tops of thighs)
- high-side bikini brief
- low-side bikini brief
- string bikini brief (the front and rear sections meet in the crotch but not at the waistband, with no fabric on the side of the legs)
- g-string type (with a front pouch for the genitals but no rear coverage)
- thong (with a strap securing the pouch at the bottom rear, passing up the crack between the buttocks to the waistband)
- athletic supporters, also known as jockstraps (with two straps securing the pouch at the bottom rear, passing around the bases of the buttocks up to the waistband at the sides)
- strapless pouches (with a front pouch and waistband only, no securing straps) There are also many types of long underwear, union suits, and other variations of men's underwear. Today, there are many other specialized types of underwear made for sexual purposes, such as edible underwear. Most of these are meant simply to display the body or genitals in certain ways, while some are intended to provide genital stimulation as well. Frederick's of Hollywood is an example of a business centered around manufacturing and selling such underwear.

Not wearing undergarments

Frederick's of Hollywood Not wearing undergarments under one's outer clothing is known in American slang as freeballing (or freebuffing for females); going commando and going bareback are also used for both sexes [http://www.wordspy.com/words/gocommando.asp]. This trend shows that not everybody considers underwear essential for hygiene, especially for modern people who bathe every day. There may be sexual motives: with underwear as the final barrier to sex, not wearing it at all is a powerful turn-on for many people. Without sexual connotation, it may be preferred by some nudists in situations where a certain amount of body coverage is required, as the state that comes closest to nudity. Cycling shorts are usually worn without underwear. Often the same applies for a kilt; the uniforms of several Scottish military regiments mandate wearing no underwear with the kilt except at specified occasions.

Underwearing

Being in public wearing nothing but underwear. Wearing just underwear in public is considered an intermediate form between being socially acceptably dressed and being nude. Deliberately exposing one's bare flesh (completely naked or at least more than socially acceptable) in public as a provocation and/or for the kick is known as streaking. People are often arrested if found wearing only their underwear. Some prisons issue inmates specially dyed underwear, which often helps in catching escapees, who might strip off their prison jumpsuit and walk off a job site wearing only their underwear. Police response to underwearing depends on context and public (generally considered most offensive if visible to young children). For example, in a public fountain that has been specifically designed for waterplay, it is often acceptable to run through it wearing only underwear, because of the recognized spontaneity of such activities on a hot day (people can't be expected to carry a bathingsuit with them everywhere they go). Thus cooling off in a fountain or lake is considered acceptable underwearing, because the underwearing serves a necessary purpose. Deliberate acts of underwearing are often done as a form of protest (e.g. "I'd rather be caught in my underwear than be caught wearing fur"). In such cases, the underwearers are usually thought of kindly, and often end up getting off once the matters work their way though the court system. It is thus mainly the inconvenience of arrest that keeps underwearing under wraps. In other cases, corporations have used underwearing as a form of sensationalism for advertising. For example, freshpair.com had a number of models parading around New York's Times Square wearing nothing but their underwear. None of the models were arrested. Some feel that cops turning a "blind eye" to this activity is biased toward commerce (i.e. underwearers are OK as long as their cause is commerce, and not performance art or protest). Charges filed, pending arrest for underwearing are typically "disorderly conduct" rather than public indecency. Of course a person is not underwearing when wearing only shirts and shorts that are designed to function as both underwear and outerwear. As a hyperbole, and since there is no other word for underwearing, (i.e. nude, naked, and stripped usually refer to being completely naked), sometimes people who are wearing only underwear are referred to as naked. For example, the "Naked Cowboy" is a celebrity who often wears only underwear, boots, and a cowboy hat. Historically T-shirts were originally considered underwear. Thus at one time, it was unacceptable to be seen in public in a T-shirt. People were required to wear at least two shirts in public: an outershirt, and an undershirt. More recently, T-shirts were re-interpreted as outerwear, and it is now acceptable to wear only one shirt in public. These social constraints apply only to mixed-gendered spaces. For example, it is acceptable for a person to be with other people of the same gender when they are in a changeroom or other space that has been specifically designated for changing clothes. Some gay bars have started a tradition of having a weekly underwear night where men can check their pants. It is acceptable and very common to wear just underwear in a private place. Some people, especially men, choose to sleep in their underwear, instead of pajamas. The animated cartoon character Homer Simpson is often depicted sitting on his couch in his briefs drinking beer. Underwear is an option in bed - see nightwear and nightgown

External links

- [http://www.mum.org/underhis.htm History of Underwear on mum.org]
- [http://www.lingerie-uncovered.com/past/lingerie.htm Past Lingerie Fashions]
- [http://www.vintageskivvies.com/pages/archives/history.html A thorough history of 20th century underwear] Category:History of fashion Category:Underwear ja:下着

Clothes

(See also List of types of clothing and Clothing terminology) Humans nearly universally wear articles of clothing (also known as dress, garments, or attire) on the body. In its broadest sense, clothing is defined as coverings for the torso and limbs as well as coverings for the hands (gloves), feet (shoes, sandals, boots), and head (hats, caps). For the alternative, see nudity. Articles carried rather than worn (such as purses, canes, and umbrellas) are normally counted as accessories rather than as clothing. Jewelry and eyeglasses are usually counted as accessories as well, even though in common speech these items are described as worn rather than carried. Humans also decorate their bodies with makeup or cosmetics, perfume, and other ornamentation; they also cut, dye, and arrange the hair of their heads, faces, and bodies (see hairstyle), and sometimes also mark their skin (by tattoos, scarifications, and piercings). All these decorations contribute to the overall effect and message of clothing, but do not constitute clothing per se. People wear clothing for functional as well as for social reasons. Clothing protects the body from the extremes of weather and other features of our environment. But every article of clothing also carries a cultural and social meaning.

Functional clothing

Practical functions of clothing include providing the human body protection against weather — strong sunlight, extreme heat or cold, and precipitation — also protection against insects, noxious chemicals, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances. In sum, clothing protects against anything that might injure the naked human body. Humans have shown extreme inventiveness in devising clothing solutions to practical problems. See: armor, diving suit, bee-keeper's costume, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and protective clothing.

Clothing as social message

protective clothing is a social message]] Social messages sent by clothing, accessories, and decorations can involve social status, occupation, ethnic and religious affiliation, marital status and sexual availability, etc. Humans must know the code in order to recognize the message transmitted. If different groups read the same item of clothing or decoration with different meanings, the wearer may provoke unanticipated responses.

Social status

In many societies, people of high rank reserve special items of clothing or decoration for themselves as symbols of their social status. In ancient times, only Roman senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple; only high-ranking Hawaiian chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa or carved whale teeth. In China before the establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. In many cases throughout history, there have been elaborate systems of sumptuary laws regulating who could wear what. In other societies (including most modern societies), no laws prohibit lower-status people from wearing high-status garments, but the high cost of status garments effectively limits purchase and display. In current Western society, only the rich can afford haute couture. The threat of social ostracism may also limit garment choice.

Occupation

Military, police, and firefighters usually wear uniforms, as do workers in many industries. School children often wear school uniforms, while college and university students sometimes wear academic dress. Members of religious orders may wear uniforms known as habits. Sometimes a single item of clothing or a single accessory can declare one's occupation or rank within a profession — for example, the high toque or chef's hat worn by a chief cook.

Ethnic, political, and religious affiliation

In many regions of the world, national costumes and styles in clothing and ornament declare membership in a certain village, caste, religion, etc. A Scotsman declares his clan with his tartan. A Sikh may display his religious affiliation by wearing a turban and other traditional clothing. A French peasant woman may identify her village with her cap or coif. Clothes can also proclaim dissent from cultural norms and mainstream beliefs, as well as personal independence. In 19th-century Europe, artists and writers lived la vie de Bohème and dressed to shock: George Sand in men's clothing, female emancipationists in bloomers, male artists in velvet waistcoats and gaudy neckcloths. Bohemians, beatniks, hippies, Goths, punks and Skinheads have continued the (countercultural) tradition in the 20th-century West. Now that haute couture plagiarizes street fashion within a year or so, street fashion may have lost some of its power to shock, but it still motivates millions trying to look hip and cool.

Marital status

Hindu women, once married, wear sindoor, a red powder, in the parting of their hair; if widowed, they abandon sindoor and jewelry and wear simple white clothing. Men and women of the Western world may wear wedding rings to indicate their marital status. See also Visual markers of marital status.

Sexual availability

Some clothing indicates the modesty of the wearer. For example, many Muslim women wear a head or body covering (see hijab, burqa or bourqa, chador and abaya) that proclaims their status as respectable women. Other clothing may indicate flirtatious intent. For example, a Western woman might wear extreme stiletto heels, close-fitting and body-revealing black or red clothing, exaggerated make-up, flashy jewelry and perfume to show sexual availability. What constitutes modesty and allurement varies radically from culture to culture, within different contexts in the same culture, and over time as different fashions rise and fall. Moreover, a person may choose to display a mixed message. For example, a Saudi Arabian woman may wear an abaya to proclaim her respectability, but choose an abaya of luxurious material cut close to the body and then accessorize with high heels and a fashionable purse. All the details proclaim sexual desirability, despite the ostensible message of respectability.

Sexual fetishes involving clothing

Because clothing and adornment are closely related to ideas of human sexuality and sexual display, humans may develop clothing fetishes. They may be strongly aroused by the sight of another person wearing clothing and accessories they consider arousing or sexually exciting. Sometimes the object of clothing becomes the object of arousal itself. Fetishes have been documented in every culture and have been recorded throughout history. Common fetishes involving clothing include arousal by or involving shoes, leather, uniforms, or lingerie. Fetishes vary as much as fashion. Sometimes the clothing itself becomes the object of fetish, such as in case with used girl panties in Japan.

Religious habits and special religious clothing

Religious clothing might be considered a special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during the performance of religious ceremonies. However, it may also be worn everyday as a marker for special religious status.
- Christian liturgical clothing (vestments)
- Christian clerical clothing (non-liturgical dress)
- Christian monastic habits
- Buddhist monastic dress
- Orthodox Jewish dress
- Hindu religious dress
- Muslim religious dress

Clothing materials

Common clothing materials include:
- Cloth, typically made of cotton, flax, wool, hemp, ramie, or silk
- Down for down-filled parkas
- Fur
- Leather
- Nylon Less-common clothing materials include:
- Bark
- Paper
- Rubber
- PVC Reinforcing materials such as wood, bone, plastic and metal may be used to stiffen garments such as corsets, bodices, or swimsuits.

Clothing maintenance

Clothing, once manufactured, suffers assault both from within and from without. The human body inside sheds skin cells and body oils, and exudes sweat, urine, and feces. From the outside, sun damage, damp, abrasion, dirt, and other indignities afflict the garment. Fleas and lice take up residence in clothing seams. Well-worn clothing, if not cleaned and refurbished, will smell, itch, look scruffy, and lose functionality (as when buttons fall off and zippers fail). In some cases, people simply wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Cleaning leather presents difficulties; one cannot wash bark cloth (tapa) without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but old leather and bark clothing will always look old. But most clothing consists of cloth, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt). Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering, ranging from the earliest "pound clothes against rocks in running stream" to the latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other than water). In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so skillfully that the darn was practically invisible. When the raw material — cloth — was worth more than labor, it made sense to expend labor in saving it. Today clothing is considered a consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the time it would take to repair it. Many people prefer to buy a new piece of clothing rather than to spend their time mending old clothes. But the thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems.

The life cycle of clothing

Used, no-longer-wearable clothing was once desirable raw material for quilts, rag rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. It could also be recycled into paper. Now it is usually just tossed into the trash. Used but still wearable clothing can be sold at consignment shops, flea markets, online auction, or just donated to charity. Charities usually skim the best of the clothing to sell in their own thrift stores and sell the rest to merchants, who bale it up and ship it to poor Third World countries, where vendors bid for the bales and then make what profit they can selling used clothing.

Early 21st-century clothing styles

Western fashion has to a certain extent become international fashion, as Western media and styles penetrate all parts of the world. Very few parts of the world remain where people do not wear items of cheap, mass-produced Western clothing. Even people in poor countries can afford used clothing from richer Western countries. However, people may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or if carrying out certain roles or occupations. For example, most Japanese women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but will still wear expensive silk kimonos on special occasions. Items of Western dress may also appear worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu. Western fashion, too, does not function monolithically. It comes in many varieties, from expensive haute couture to thrift store grunge.

Mainstream Western or international styles

- International standard business attire -- global in influence, just as business functions globally.
- Haute couture

Regional styles

- Clothing of Europe and Russia
- Clothing in the Americas
- United States mainstream fashion :For example: "Catalogue" fashion, regional styles such as preppy or Western wear.
- United States alternative fashion :These fashions are often associated with fans of various musical styles. :See also Goth, Hippie, Grunge, Hip-hop, and Fetish-wear
- Clothing in Asia
- Clothing in Africa
- Clothing in Oceania

Origin and history of clothing

Clothing in Oceania]] According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing probably consisted of fur, leather, leaves or grass, draped, wrapped or tied about the body for protection from the elements. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia, in 1988. Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking, anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, have conducted a genetic analysis of human body lice that indicates that they originated not more than about 72,000 +/- 42,000 years ago. Since most humans have very sparse body hair, body lice require clothing to survive, so this suggests a surprisingly recent date for the invention of clothing. Its invention may have coincided with the spread of modern Homo sapiens from the warm climate of Africa, thought to have begun between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. (Note that some religions dispute the scientific accounts of human evolution and early history, and embrace accounts of human origins, including the origins of clothing, based on sacred texts or myths. See Traditional accounts of the origin of clothing.) Some human cultures, such as the various peoples of the Arctic Circle, until recently made their clothing entirely of furs and skins, cutting clothing to fit and decorating lavishly. Other cultures have supplemented or replaced leather and skins with cloth: woven, knitted, or twined from various animal and vegetable fibres. See weaving, knitting, and twining. Although modern consumers take clothing for granted, making the fabrics that go into clothing is not easy. One sign of this is that the textile industry was the first to be mechanized during the Industrial Revolution; before the invention of the powered loom, textile production was a tedious and labor-intensive process. Therefore, methods were developed for making most efficient use of textiles. One approach simply involves draping the cloth. Many peoples wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit — for example, the Scottish kilt or the Javanese sarong. Pins or belts hold the garments in place. The precious cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes can wear the garment. Another approach involves cutting and sewing the cloth, but using every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing the clothing. The tailor may cut triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth, and then add them elsewhere as gussets. Traditional European patterns for men's shirts and women's chemises take this approach. Modern European fashion treats cloth much more prodigally, typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; home sewers may turn them into quilts. In the thousands of years that humans have spent constructing clothing, they have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which we can reconstruct from surviving garments, photos, paintings, mosaics, etc., as well as from written descriptions. Costume history serves as a source of inspiration to current fashion designers, as well as a topic of professional interest to costumers constructing for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment.

Future trends

As technologies change, so will clothing.
- Man-made fibers such as nylon, polyester, Lycra, and Gore-Tex already account for much of the clothing market. Many more types of fibers will certainly be developed, possibly using nanotechnology. For example, military uniforms may stiffen when hit by bullets, filter out poisonous chemicals, and treat wounds.
- "Smart" clothing will incorporate electronics. Clothing may incorporate wearable computers, flexible wearable displays (possibly leading to fully animated clothing and some forms of invisibility cloaks), medical sensors, etc.
- Present-day ready-to-wear technologies will presumably give way to computer-aided custom manufacturing. Harmless laser beams (usually white light) will measure the customer; computers will draw up a custom pattern and execute it in the customer's choice of cloth.

Clothing industry

The clothing industry is concentrated outside of western Europe and America, and garment workers often have to labor under poor conditions. Coalitions of NGO's and trade unions like the Clean clothes campaign (CCC) seek to improve these conditions as much as possible by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the workers' plight.

External links

- [http://ipl.si.umich.edu/div/pf/entry/48452 The Internet Public Library - Clothing resources]
- [http://www.marquise.de La Couturière Parisienne]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/2777111.stm Japanese scientist invents 'invisibility coat' - BBC News]
- [http://www.german-hosiery-museum.de/hosiery-museum.htm German Hosiery Museum (English language)]
- [http://ejrs.com/converters/clothesizes.html International Clothes Sizes]
- [http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Kittler.CurBiol.2003.pdf Molecular Evolution of Pediculus humanus and the Origin of Clothing] by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking (PDF file) Category:Human appearance Category:Clothing Category:Consumer goods ja:衣類 simple:Clothing

Skin

:For alternate meanings see skin (disambiguation) skin (disambiguation) In zootomy and dermatology, skin is an organ of the integumentary system composed of a layer of tissues that protect underlying muscles and organs. As the interface with the surroundings, it plays the most important role in protecting against pathogens. Its other main functions are insulation and temperature regulation, sensation and vitamin D and B synthesis. Skin has pigmentation, provided by melanocytes, which absorbs some of the potentially dangerous radiation in sunlight. It also contains DNA repair enzymes which reverse UV damage, and people who lack the genes for these enzymes suffer high rates of skin cancer. One form predominantly produced by UV light, malignant melanoma, is particularly invasive, causing it to spread quickly, and can often be deadly. Human skin pigmentation varies among populations in a striking manner. This has sometimes led to the classification of people(s) on the basis of skin color. See the article on human skin color. Mammalian skin often contains hairs, which in sufficient density is called fur. The hair mainly serves to augment the insulation the skin provides, but can also serve as a secondary sexual characteristic or as camouflage. On some animals the skin is very hard and thick, and can be processed to create leather. Reptiles and fish have hard protective scales on their skin for protection, and birds have hard feathers, all made of tough β-keratins. Amphibian skin is not a strong barrier to passage of chemicals. A frog sitting in an anesthetic solution will quickly go to sleep. Damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue, often giving rise to discoloration and depigmentation of the skin. The skin is often known as "the largest organ in the human body". This applies to exterior surface, as it covers the body, appearing to have the largest surface area of all the organs. Moreover, it applies to weight, as it weighs more than any single internal organ, accounting for about 15 percent of body weight. For the average adult human, the skin has a surface area of between 1.5-2.0 square metres, most of it is between 2-3 mm thick. The average square inch of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than a thousand nerve endings. The skin on a person's face is seen by people that person interacts with. For some people, therefore, facial skin care is of particular importance, and they often use cosmetics to deal with the appearance of the face and condition of the skin, such as those for pore control and black head cleansing.

Layers

Skin is composed of the epidermis and the dermis. Below these layers lies the hypodermis, which is not usually classified as a layer of skin. The outermost epidermis is made up of stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying basement membrane. It contains no blood vessels, and is nourished by diffusion from the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are keratinocytes, with melanocytes and Langerhans cells also present. The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following strata (beginning with the outermost layer): corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale. Cells are formed through mitosis at the innermost layers. They move up the strata changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled with keratin. They eventually reach the corneum and become sloughed off (desquamation). This process is called keratinization and takes place within about 30 days. This layer of skin is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals and pathogens out. Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an arteriole and a venule. Arterial shunt vessels may bypass the network in ears, the nose and fingertips. The dermis lies below the epidermis and contains a number of structures including blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscle, glands and lymphatic tissue. It is made up of loose connective tissue otherwise called areolar connective tissue - collagen, elastin and reticular fibres are present. Erector muscles, attached between the hair papilla and epidermis, can contract, resulting in the hair fibre pulled upright and consequentially goose bumps. The main cell types are fibroblasts, adipocytes (fat storage) and macrophages. Sebaceous glands are exocrine glands which produce sebum, a mixture of lipids and waxy substances: lubrication, water-proofing, softening and antibactericidal actions are among the many functions of sebum. Sweat glands open up via a duct onto the skin by a pore. The dermis can be split into the papillary and reticular layers. The papillary layer is outermost and extends into the dermis to supply it with vessels. It is composed of loosely arranged fibres. Papillary ridges make up the lines of the hands. The reticular layer is more dense and is continuous with the hypodermis. It contains the bulk of the structures (such as sweat glands). The reticular layer is composed of irregularly arranged fibres and resists stretching. The hypodermis is not part of the skin, and lies below the dermis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It is made up of loose connective tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (the hypodermis contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body.

Types

Skin can be dividided into thick and thin types. Thick skin is present on the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands. It has a larger stratum corneum with a higher keratin content. Thick skin does not grow hair; its purpose is to help grip. Thin skin is present on the bulk of the body and has a smaller stratum corneum and fewer papillae ridges. It has hair and is softer and more elastic. The characteristics of the skin, including sensory nerve density and the type of hair, vary with location on the body.

Functions

#Protection: an anatomical barrier between the internal and external environment in bodily defense; Langerhans cells in the skin are part of the adaptive immune system #Sensation: contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat, cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury. #Heat regulation: The skin contains sebaceous glands and smooth erector pili muscles. #Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage centre for lipids and water, as well as a means of synthesis of vitamin D and B by action of UV on certain parts of the skin. This synthesis is linked to pigmentation, with darker skin producing more vitamin B than D, and vice versa. #Excretion: The concentration of urea is 1/130th less than that of urine. Excretion by sweating is at most a secondary function to temperature regulation. #Absorption: Oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide can diffuse into the epidermis in small amounts. In addition, medicine can be administer through the skin, by ointments or by means of adhesive patch, such as the nicotine patch or iontophoresis. The skin is an important site of transport in many other organisms.

Hygiene

The skin must be regularly cleaned. Unless enough care is taken it will become cracked or inflamed. Unclean skin favors the development of pathogenic organisms. The constantly peeling off dead cells of the epidermis mix with the secretions of the sweat and sebaceous glands and the dust found on the skin to form a filthy layer on its surface. If not washed away the dirt begins to decompose emitting a foul smell. Functions of the skin are disturbed when it is dirty and it becomes more easily damaged. The release of antibacterial compounds decreases. Dirty skin is more prone to develop infections. Cosmetics should be used carefully because these may cause allergic reactions. Each season requires suitable clothing in order to facilitate the evaporation of the sweat. Sunlight, water and air play an important role in keeping the skin healthy. The skin supports its own ecosystems of microorganisms, including yeasts and bacteria, which cannot be removed by any amount of cleaning. In general these organisms keep one another in check and are part of a healthy skin. When the balance is disturbed, e.g., by antibiotics which kill bacteria, there may be an overgrowth and infection by yeasts. The skin is continuous with the inner epithelial lining of the body at the orifices, each of which supports its own complement of flora.

Aging and disease

As skin ages, it becomes thinner and more easily damaged. Intensifying this effect is the decreasing ability of skin to heal itself. Skin sagging is caused by the fall in elasticity. Skin also receives less blood flow and lower gland activity. In medicine, the branch concerned with the skin is called dermatology. The skin is subject to constant attack from without, and so can be afflicted by numerous ailments, such as: Tumors:
- Benign tumors of the skin: Squamous cell papilloma
- Skin cancer Others:
- Rashes
- Blisters
- Acne
- Keratosis pilaris
- Fungal infections such as athlete's foot
- microbial infections.
- calcinosis cutis
- ulcer
- list of skin diseases

External links

- [http://www.skinema.com/ Page about depiction of skin in the movie world] Category:Integumentary system Category:Dermatology ja:皮膚 simple:Skin

Hygiene

Hygiene is the maintenance of healthy practices. In modern terminology, this is usually regarded as a particular reference to cleanliness. Outward signs of good hygiene include the absence of visible dirt (including dust and stains on clothing) or of bad smells. Since the development of the germ theory of disease, hygiene has come to mean any practice leading to the absence of harmful levels of bacteria. Good hygiene is an aid to health, beauty, comfort and social interactions. It directly aids in disease prevention and/or disease isolation. (That is, good hygiene will help keep you healthy and thus avoid illness. If you are sick, good hygiene can reduce your contagiousness to others.) Washing (with water) is the most common example of hygienic behavior. Washing is often done with soap or detergent which helps to remove oils and to break up dirt particles so they may be washed away. Hygienic practices -- such as frequent hand washing or the use of boiled (and thus sterilized) water in medical operations -- have a profound impact on reducing the spread of disease. This is because they kill or remove disease-causing microbes (germs) in the immediate surroundings. For instance, washing one's hands after using the toilet and before handling food reduces the chance of spreading E. coli bacteria and hepatitis A, both of which are spread from fecal contamination of food.

Some hygienic practices

Personal hygiene

- Daily washing of the body and hair
- More frequent washing of hands and/or face
- Brushing teeth one to three times daily
- Cleaning of the clothes and living area
- General avoidance of body fluids
- General avoidance of unhygienic people
- Holding a hand in front of the mouth when sneezing or coughing
- Suppression of habits such as spitting or nose-picking
- Use of condoms in sexual relations
- Washing hands before eating
- Not licking fingers before picking up sheets of paper
- Not touching feces.

Food preparation and consumption

- Cleaning of food preparation areas and equipment
- Washing of hands after touching uncooked food when preparing meals
- Not using the same utensils to prepare different foods
- Non-sharing of cutlery when eating
- No licking of fingers or hands while or after eating
- Refrigeration of foods (and avoidance of certain foods in environments where refrigeration is or was not feasible)
- The labeling of food to indicate when it was produced (or, as food manufacturers prefer, to indicate its best before date)
- Proper storage of food so as to prevent contamination by vermin
- Disposal of uneaten food and packaging
- Institutional dish sanitizing

Medicine

- Use of sterile bandaging and dressing of wounds
- Use of protective clothing such as masks, gowns, caps, eyewear and gloves.
- Sterilisation of instruments used in surgical procedures
- Safe disposal of medical waste

Personal services

- Sterilization of instruments used by hairdressers
- Sterilization by autoclave of instruments used in body piercing ja:衛生

Eroticism

:Erotic redirects here. For the band see E-Rotic Eroticism is an aesthetic focused on sexual desire, especially the feelings of anticipation of sexual activity. See also:
- Erotica fiction or other material intended to stimulate sexual desire.
- Human sexuality
- Paraphilia
- Pornography
- Romance
- Sensual
- Sexual fantasy Category:Human sexuality [Erotic Literature[http://eu.nifty.org]]

Temple garment

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and a few other sects of Mormonism, the temple garment is a set of sacred underclothing worn by male and female Latter-day Saints who have taken part in the washing and anointing ceremony in Latter-day Saint temples.

Symbolism and purpose

The temple garment (formally the Garment of the Holy Priesthood or informally, the garment or garments) symbolizes the "coats of skins" which Jehovah (Yahweh) made for Adam and Eve before casting them out of the Garden of Eden (Gen. 3:21). Latter-day Saints who have been endowed in the temple are expected to wear the garment to remind them of special promises or covenants to God. Latter-Day Saints are commonly clothed in them and the outer temple clothing for burial. The garment is believed to be a spiritual "shield and protection" against the powers of evil, (and sometimes against physical harm, according to some Latter-Day Saints).

Construction of the temple garment

In the 19th century, the temple garment was a long, single-piece article of clothing resembling a union suit, with special markings over the breasts, navel, and right knee. Originally, garments were made in a number of colors, but in 1893 the LDS Church expressed an official preference for the color white. Subsequently, the garment has undergone style changes, to reflect changes in lifestyle and modesty. In 1923, the Church offered a garment design that was shortened to the knees and shoulders. In 1979, the Church offered a two-piece garment. While normally white, the garment is currently made in the color brown for regulation military use. Sold online, in temples, and various outlets called "Beehive Clothing", the garment is available in several fabrics and styles; however, new styles must be approved by the Church leadership. It is also possible to make one's own garments based upon one of a small number of Church-authorized patterns. The garment contains four special symbolic marks: one on each breast, one at the navel, and one over the right knee. A change in the 1930 version of the LDS endowment added a brief explanation of what the marks meant, and still exists in the current version.

Receiving the garment

The temple garment is given during the washing and anointing ceremony in Latter-day Saint temples. This ceremony is a prelude to the Endowment ceremony, and in it, the person being washed and anointed is ceremonially given the garment.

The garment as a shield

In general, Latter-day Saints view the garment as a symbolic and spiritual shield against the powers of evil. Some Latter-day Saints, moreover, believe that the garment provides the wearer with special physical protection. For example, in an April 1996 interview with Mike Wallace on the show 60 Minutes, Latter-day Saint Bill Marriott, CEO of Marriott International, claimed his garments protected him from being burned during a boating accident. This, however, is not an official doctrine taught by leaders within the church.

Unauthorized sale and use

Church leaders have publicly discussed the above principles and beliefs since the mid-1840s, however, because of the sacredness surrounding temple rites and the garment, some outspoken critics of the Latter-day Saints have utilized it as a source of humor and parody. Due to the considerable number of temple garments in existence, there have been several cases where people (including some ex-Mormons) have distributed photographs of models wearing temple garments in a manner contrary to accepted LDS practice. For example, a model wearing a temple garment was published in a popular adult magazine during the 1940s and in another adult periodical in the 1960s. Garments are featured in a book about undergarments published in the 1990s, and also in various anti-Mormon books during the 1980s. In 2004, photos which hinted at people engaged in sexual acts dressed as Mormon missionaries wearing garments were showcased in a Salt Lake area art display, which incited considerable protest by college students who were returned missionaries. The four photos in question were moved to a room apart from the public display. They were subsequently stolen. With the advent of the Internet, there are additional sites that publish photographs of garments for educational, parody or other use. A more recent controversy surrounds the open sales of temple garments on the eBay auction web site multiple times since 2000. Typically the garments are removed for a violation of eBay policy unrelated to its religious context. During the October 2003 General Conference of the Church, some anti-Mormon demonstrators wore garments around their necks and defaced them in ways that were extraordinarily offensive to those in attendance. In light of the violence that resulted during the 2003 Conference, the municipality of Salt Lake City planned stronger enforcement of fighting words and hate speech laws for the April 2004 Conference in Salt Lake City with new protest buffer zones.

The sacred nature of the garment

To members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the temple garment represents the sacred and personal aspects of their relationship with God. For this reason, Church members do not discuss the garment in a casual or disrespectful manner. In a Church publication entitled Preparing to Enter the Holy Temple, the story is told of a church leader who answered questions from a group of US Navy Chaplains representing various faiths. The chaplains asked about distinctive practices of the LDS Church. One chaplain asked about the special underwear that LDS sailors wear. The church leader responded by asking the chaplain if he wore clerical clothing as he performed his duties as an ordained minister. The chaplain responded that he did. The church leader surmised that this action probably held some significance, as it set the priest apart from the unordained members of the congregation. The following paragraphs are quoted from that work: "He then told them: 'You should be able to understand at least one of our reasons why Latter-day Saints have a deep spiritual commitment concerning the garment. A major difference between your churches and ours is that we do not have a professional clergy, as you do. The congregations are all presided over by local leaders. They are men called from all walks of life. Yet they are ordained to the priesthood. They hold offices in the priesthood. They are set apart to presiding positions as presidents, counselors, and leaders in various categories. The women, too, share in that responsibility and in those obligations. The man who heads our congregation on Sunday as the bishop may go to work on Monday as a postal clerk, as an office worker, a farmer, a doctor; or he may be an air force pilot or a naval officer. By our standard he is as much an ordained minister as you are by your standard. He is recognized as such by most governments. We draw something of the same benefits from this special clothing as you would draw from your clerical vestments. The difference is that we wear ours under our clothing instead of outside, for we are employed in various occupations in addition to our service in the Church. These sacred things we do not wish to parade before the world.' "He then explained that there are some deeper spiritual meanings as well, connecting the practice of wearing this garment with covenants that are made in the temple. We wouldn’t find it necessary to discuss these—not that they are secret, he repeated, but because they are sacred." Preparing to Enter the Holy Temple

References

- [http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Magazines/Ensign/1997.htm/ensign%20august%201997.htm/the%20temple%20garment%20an%20outward%20expression%20of%20an%20inward%20commitment.htm?f=templates$fn=document-frame.htm$3.0$q=$x=|The Temple Garment: “An Outward Expression of an Inward Commitment” By Elder Carlos E. Asay]
- McDannell, Colleen. "Mormon Garments: Sacred Clothing and the Body." [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0300074999/102-3127905-0123317?v=glance&n=283155&s=books&v=glance Material Christianity: Religion and Popular Culture in America] (Yale University Press, 1995), pp. 198-221.

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is the largest attraction in the city's Temple Square.]] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, widely known as the "LDS Church" or the "Mormon Church", is the largest and best known denomination within the Latter Day Saint movement (a form of Christian Restorationism). The church is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. Latter-day Saints are widely known for:
- Active proselytizing by full-time volunteer missionaries
- Belief in modern day revelation through prophets, beginning with Joseph Smith, Jr., and continuing today with Gordon B. Hinckley
- Acceptance of the Bible, the Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and The Pearl of Great Price as works of scripture
- A dietary code called the Word of Wisdom, currently requiring abstinence from alcohol, tobacco, coffee, tea, and illegal drugs; caffeinated soft drinks are left to individual discretion
- Belief in God the Father, the Son (Christ), and the Holy Ghost existing as three separate individual beings or personages
- Belief in a form of theosis called exaltation or eternal progression
- Wearing ceremonial temple garments under their daily clothes
- Performing baptisms for the dead, and other ordinances by proxy, in temples and doing attendant genealogical research As the name of the church implies, Latter-day Saints regard Jesus Christ as the head of their church and count themselves as Christians, but do not consider themselves part of the Catholic, Orthodox, or Protestant traditions. Rather, they believe the church to be the restoration of the original church established by Jesus Christ on Earth. Some outside observers classify the church as a Protestant denomination, while others do not consider it to be a Christian church at all (see Mormonism and Christianity). The church has no formal association with groups of Mormon "fundamentalists", who still practice polygamy. The church reports a worldwide membership of 12,275,822 as of December 31, 2004, with 6.7 million residing outside the United States. It is the fourth largest religion in the United States. The church membership report includes all those who have been baptized by the church (adults and youth), regardless of attendance (people who ask to have their names removed from church records are not included in the tally). This report includes unbaptized children of record (between the ages of 0 and 8). The American Religious Identification Survey 2001 [http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/03statab/pop.pdf estimated] an adult Mormon membership of approximately 2.8 million Americans. According to statistics released by the church, 47% of its members live in the United States and Canada, 36% in Latin America, and 17% in other parts of the world. (See [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/page/0,15606,4036-1---12-168,00.html Membership Distribution])

History

Members of the church — known as Latter-day Saints — believe their faith to be the divinely appointed restoration of the church established by Jesus Christ as depicted in the New Testament. They believe that after the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, the death of his apostles, and faced with organized persecution and hostility from within the pagan Roman Empire, the church that Christ had established and its authority rapidly began to change, leading ultimately to the Great Apostasy. As a result, new doctrine influenced by Hellenistic philosophy came to the fore, and by the fourth century, the Priesthood —or the authority to act in the name of God— had been lost from the Earth completely. Without the priesthood to guide the original church Christ established, spiritual leaders began to stray from the original doctrine of Christ. Priesthood George A. Smith. Joseph Smith was the founder and first President of the church.]] Church members further believe that in the spring of 1820, God the Father and His Son, Jesus Christ, appeared to a 14-year-old boy named Joseph Smith, Jr. in response to his prayer regarding which church was true. He was commanded to join none of the existing churches, and through other angelic visits was eventually called as the first prophet of the restored church. This event set in motion the events that led to the earthly restoration of the ancient church of Jesus Christ with its truths and priesthood authority. Ten years later, after a series of other revelations and visitations to Joseph and others, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was officially organized by Joseph Smith, Jr. and five associates on 6 April 1830, in Fayette, New York. They were in the company of some 56 men and women . In the process, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery received the priesthood and its keys lost to the earth from resurrected beings who held the authority anciently, including John the Baptist, the apostles Peter, James and John, and the ancient prophet Elijah. These restorations of the priesthood brought with them the restoration of the authority to perform baptism and other ordinances. After suffering under persecution in several states, including a government-ordered extermination order from Missouri, Smith was eventually killed by a mob in 1844. Brigham Young, then President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, was sustained by the majority of the church as the next Prophet and President of the church (see also succession crisis). Faced with further persecution in Nauvoo, Illinois and surrounding towns, members of the church eventually followed Brigham Young to the Salt Lake Valley, and settled a large area now encompassed by the state of Utah and parts of Arizona, California, Nevada, Idaho, and Wyoming. The church is now headquartered in the Salt Lake Valley. The church is currently led by President Gordon B. Hinckley. He is assisted in the First Presidency by two counselors and twelve Apostles, each of whom are also sustained by members as "prophets, seers, and revelators."

Name of the church

seer Originally the church was called the "Church of Christ" due to the knowledge that it is the restored Church of Jesus Christ. Four years later, in April 1834, it was also referred to as the "Church of Latter Day Saints" to differentiate the church of this era from that of the New Testament. Then in April 1838, the full name was stated as the "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints" (see [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/115/3-4 Doctrine and Covenants 115:3-4]). In 1851, when the church was incorporated in the United States, the official name changed slightly, picking up the additional corporate first article, "The", and the British hyphenation of "Latter-day". The church is also commonly referred to as the "LDS Church", and sometimes the "Mormon Church". Occasionally, these names may bring about confusion, as other groups outside the church are sometimes alluded to as "Latter-day Saints" or "Mormons". Generally speaking, however, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is likely the most referred to of any of these references. The nickname "Mormon" arose soon after the publication of The Book of Mormon in 1830. Although originally used pejoratively to refer to the church or its members, the term came to be used widely within the church. In a [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/page/0,15606,3899-1---15-168,00.html style guide] issued in 2001, the church requests that the official name, "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", be used where possible, stating: "This full name was given by revelation from God to Joseph Smith in 1838." It also encourages the use of "the Church" or "The Church of Jesus Christ" as a shortened reference although the "LDS Church" is commonly used within the church's publications. When referring to members of the church, it suggests "Latter-day Saints" as preferred, although "Mormons" is acceptable. Despite the church's efforts to encourage use of the official name, the Associated Press has continued to recommend "Mormon Church" as a proper second reference in its Style Guide for journalists. In contrast to the Associated Press Stylebook's guidelines which apply the term only to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, some scholars feel the term "Mormon" is also useful as a collective description for all those groups which claim to have descended from Joseph Smith. A new movement is underway to refer to the unique culture, social workings and doctrines of the sects that claim succession from Smith as Mormonism and historical underpinnings as the Latter Day Saint movement. Within the church, members are collectively referred to as "saints", which reflects the belief that anyone who covenants by baptism to follow Christ is a saint, as members of the primitive church were also deemed. The term "saint" is not solely reserved for an exemplary Christian as in other churches. It is used, as in Biblical times, to refer to anyone who had become converted to the gospel.

Major Beliefs

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has many beliefs unique to the church.

First Principles and Ordinances of the Gospel

The fourth Article of Faith states that Latter-day Saints "believe that the first principles and ordinances of the Gospel are: first, Faith in the Lord Jesus Christ; second, Repentance; third, Baptism by immersion for the remission of sins; fourth, Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost."

Faith

Latter-day Saints believe that faith in Jesus is a fundamental requisite to Salvation. The Prophet Joseph Smith taught, “The fundamental principles of our religion are the testimony of the Apostles and Prophets, concerning Jesus Christ, that He died, was buried, and rose again the third day, and ascended into heaven; and all other things which pertain to our religion are only appendages to it.” (Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, 121). The Lectures on Faith teach that faith is a principle of action and of power, in both the temporal and the spiritual realm. Ultimately, faith is “the first great governing principle which has power, dominion, and authority over all things.” (Lecture 1). For Latter-day Saints, the historical basis of faith comes from the record in the Bible, which leads to a personal Theophany. The Lectures on Faith explain: :Let us here observe, that three things are necessary in order that any rational and intelligent being may exercise faith in God unto life and salvation: :First, the idea that he actually exists. :Secondly, a correct idea of his character, perfections, and attributes. :Thirdly, an actual knowledge that the course of life which he is pursuing is according to his will. For without an acquaintance with these three important facts, the faith of every rational being must be imperfect and unproductive; but with this understanding it can become perfect and fruitful, abounding in righteousness, unto the praise and glory of God the Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ. (Lecture 3) The character and attributes and perfections of Christ are Knowledge, Faith (or Power), Justice, Judgment , Mercy , and Truth. By the operation of the Holy Ghost, the miracle of the Atonement, and personal sacrifice, we can develop the same character and attributes of God, and become like Him. Faith in Jesus Christ means accepting Jesus Christ as the Son of God and the Messiah. This includes two parts: 1) the belief that all who live on Earth are granted salvation from death (physical resurrection) through the Atonement, the sacrificial death and resurrection of Jesus Christ; and 2) that salvation from sin (or spiritual death) is obtained through sincere repentance, resulting in forgiveness for sin through his grace, and by following the teachings and commandments of Jesus Christ. Latter-day Saints are encouraged by church leaders and the LDS culture to develop their faith through study, prayer, service, and obedience to God's commandments. Faith is a form of spiritual work, and character-shaping, in conjunction with the miracle of Christ's Atonement. Latter-day Saints often refer to their personal faith as their "testimony" and refer to telling others about their faith as "bearing testimony."

Repentance

Latter-day Saints believe in the principle of repentance, which for them includes a sincere regret, or "godly sorrow", as well as restitution when possible and abstinence from the sin. Key to the repentance process is a person's personal, prayerful confession to God, which includes asking for forgiveness and resolving not to repeat the mistake. It is important to confess serious sins to a bishop, who can offer advice and encouragement. Consistent with the meaning of the Hebrew and Greek words from which it is translated, repentance denotes "a change of mind", "a turning of the heart and will to God, and a renunciation of sin to which we are naturally inclined." Thus, a return to sin shows that the repentance process is not truly completed. Repentance is for small and large sins and is an ongoing process.

Baptism

The Church of Jesus Christ practices baptism by immersion in water. Baptism is symbolic of burial and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus Christ. Like many Christians, Latter-day Saints believe that a person who repents and is baptized has all prior sins remitted. Baptism is never performed before the eighth birthday. The age of eight was given in latter-day revelation as the age when children become accountable for their sins, that is, they are able to discern between right and wrong. If a person is unable to discern between right and wrong (ie. those with severe mental retardation, etc.) they are deemed unaccountable for their sins and do not require baptism, regardless of their age; they are viewed as fully saved through the Atonement of Christ. The Book of Mormon and modern revelation specifically forbids the practice of infant baptism. (See [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/68/27 Doctrine and Covenants 68:27] and [http://scriptures.lds.org/moro/8/4-23 Moroni 8:4-23].) Baptism is recognized only when performed by one holding the proper authority, contained in the office of a Priest in the Aaronic Priesthood or a higher office. They also practice Baptism for the dead, a practice that is unique to the LDS Church.

Gift of the Holy Ghost

Following baptism by immersion, individuals are confirmed members of the church and given the Gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands by Priesthood bearers worthy to do so. Latter-day Saints believe that this blessing entitles the newly confirmed recipient to have the constant companionship of the Holy Ghost as a guide and guardian so long as the recipient lives worthy of the gift. Moreover, members believe that those who have not been confirmed may still receive inspiration and a witness from the Holy Ghost but are not entitled to constant companionship available through the gift of the Holy Ghost.

Enduring to the End

Latter-day Saints also believe that life involves enduring to the end, and is not just a "one-time" religious experience. A life of discipleship is daily spiritual maintenance, charitable works, and personal development — social, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual development. It also involves overcoming personal trials, attending church and temple, rearing families, and doing work for the dead. Ultimately, the goal is for sanctification, the process of having the same character that God has: perfect love, perfect mercy, and perfect truth.

The Godhead

LDS theology maintains that God the Father (Heavenly Father), Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost are three separate and distinct personages who together comprise the Godhead (as distinct from the traditional doctrine of the Trinity, which maintains that they are three persons but one in essence). All three members of the Godhead are eternal and equally divine, but play somewhat different roles. While the Holy Ghost is a spirit without a physical body, God and Christ do possess distinct, perfected, physical bodies of flesh and bone. Although Mormon theology sees the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost as separate beings, they are considered to be "one God" in most every other possible sense — most importantly they are one in purpose. Mormonism posits most of the same attributes to the members of the Godhead that Trinitarian Christianity posits to the Trinity: omnipotence, omniscience, omnibenevolence, eternal, immutable, immortality, and immanence in the universe but not transcendence of it. However, the meaning held for some of these attributes differ significantly. For example, Mormonism holds that: as the creator, God is the organizer of the universe since in Mormonism all matter (including sentient beings) that exists has always existed and will always exist; God's omnipotence does not transcend logic, or the basic laws of physics, though mankind may not necessarily understand those laws fully; and God's immutability concerns primarily His creations and His future status, not His status prior to that time. Although it is not stated in the canonical scriptures, Joseph Smith and other church leaders have taught that God the Father is an exalted man who once lived on an earth similar to this one, like His Son Jesus Christ. Joseph Smith reportedly said: :These are incomprehensible ideas to some, but they are simple. It is the first principle of the Gospel to know for a certainty the Character of God, and to know that we may converse with him as one man converses with another, and that he was once a man like us; yea, that God himself, the Father of us all, dwelt on an earth, the same as Jesus Christ himself did; and I will show it from the Bible. (Joseph Fielding Smith, Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, pp. 345-46.) It is implied that God may have lived a mortal life and passed through death, being resurrected and eventually progressing to godhood. The creation story in Genesis would begin sometime after this point. Latter-day Saints generally also believe, although it is not canonical, that God is eternally married to a Heavenly Mother. Heavenly Mother is believed to be entirely equal in status to Heavenly Father, a celestial Goddess and God, respectively, forever married to one another and preserving differing yet complementary roles of deity, although She is not explicitly referred to in doctrine, scripture, or other Church canons. Her existence is referred to briefly in the Church hymn titled O My Father (Hymn number 292), and it is presumed from Church teachings proclaiming that each person is a "spirit son or daughter

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Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

History

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Major Beliefs

First Principles and Ordinances of the Gospel

Faith

Repentance

Baptism

Gift of the Holy Ghost

Enduring to the End

The Godhead