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Basque (clothing)

Basque (clothing)

A basque is women's clothing term for a tight, form-fitting bodice or coat. In the Victorian fashion, a basque was a long, fitted jacket, or the skirts of such a jacket. Nowadays the term basque is used for a piece of erotic lingerie, with fetishistic overtones. Basque may also refer to details reminiscent of lingerie such as frilly lace and cut out designs. See also: corset Category:Clothing Category:History of fashion

Clothing

(See also List of types of clothing and Clothing terminology) Humans nearly universally wear articles of clothing (also known as dress, garments, or attire) on the body. In its broadest sense, clothing is defined as coverings for the torso and limbs as well as coverings for the hands (gloves), feet (shoes, sandals, boots), and head (hats, caps). For the alternative, see nudity. Articles carried rather than worn (such as purses, canes, and umbrellas) are normally counted as accessories rather than as clothing. Jewelry and eyeglasses are usually counted as accessories as well, even though in common speech these items are described as worn rather than carried. Humans also decorate their bodies with makeup or cosmetics, perfume, and other ornamentation; they also cut, dye, and arrange the hair of their heads, faces, and bodies (see hairstyle), and sometimes also mark their skin (by tattoos, scarifications, and piercings). All these decorations contribute to the overall effect and message of clothing, but do not constitute clothing per se. People wear clothing for functional as well as for social reasons. Clothing protects the body from the extremes of weather and other features of our environment. But every article of clothing also carries a cultural and social meaning.

Functional clothing

Practical functions of clothing include providing the human body protection against weather — strong sunlight, extreme heat or cold, and precipitation — also protection against insects, noxious chemicals, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances. In sum, clothing protects against anything that might injure the naked human body. Humans have shown extreme inventiveness in devising clothing solutions to practical problems. See: armor, diving suit, bee-keeper's costume, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and protective clothing.

Clothing as social message

protective clothing is a social message]] Social messages sent by clothing, accessories, and decorations can involve social status, occupation, ethnic and religious affiliation, marital status and sexual availability, etc. Humans must know the code in order to recognize the message transmitted. If different groups read the same item of clothing or decoration with different meanings, the wearer may provoke unanticipated responses.

Social status

In many societies, people of high rank reserve special items of clothing or decoration for themselves as symbols of their social status. In ancient times, only Roman senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple; only high-ranking Hawaiian chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa or carved whale teeth. In China before the establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. In many cases throughout history, there have been elaborate systems of sumptuary laws regulating who could wear what. In other societies (including most modern societies), no laws prohibit lower-status people from wearing high-status garments, but the high cost of status garments effectively limits purchase and display. In current Western society, only the rich can afford haute couture. The threat of social ostracism may also limit garment choice.

Occupation

Military, police, and firefighters usually wear uniforms, as do workers in many industries. School children often wear school uniforms, while college and university students sometimes wear academic dress. Members of religious orders may wear uniforms known as habits. Sometimes a single item of clothing or a single accessory can declare one's occupation or rank within a profession — for example, the high toque or chef's hat worn by a chief cook.

Ethnic, political, and religious affiliation

In many regions of the world, national costumes and styles in clothing and ornament declare membership in a certain village, caste, religion, etc. A Scotsman declares his clan with his tartan. A Sikh may display his religious affiliation by wearing a turban and other traditional clothing. A French peasant woman may identify her village with her cap or coif. Clothes can also proclaim dissent from cultural norms and mainstream beliefs, as well as personal independence. In 19th-century Europe, artists and writers lived la vie de Bohème and dressed to shock: George Sand in men's clothing, female emancipationists in bloomers, male artists in velvet waistcoats and gaudy neckcloths. Bohemians, beatniks, hippies, Goths, punks and Skinheads have continued the (countercultural) tradition in the 20th-century West. Now that haute couture plagiarizes street fashion within a year or so, street fashion may have lost some of its power to shock, but it still motivates millions trying to look hip and cool.

Marital status

Hindu women, once married, wear sindoor, a red powder, in the parting of their hair; if widowed, they abandon sindoor and jewelry and wear simple white clothing. Men and women of the Western world may wear wedding rings to indicate their marital status. See also Visual markers of marital status.

Sexual availability

Some clothing indicates the modesty of the wearer. For example, many Muslim women wear a head or body covering (see hijab, burqa or bourqa, chador and abaya) that proclaims their status as respectable women. Other clothing may indicate flirtatious intent. For example, a Western woman might wear extreme stiletto heels, close-fitting and body-revealing black or red clothing, exaggerated make-up, flashy jewelry and perfume to show sexual availability. What constitutes modesty and allurement varies radically from culture to culture, within different contexts in the same culture, and over time as different fashions rise and fall. Moreover, a person may choose to display a mixed message. For example, a Saudi Arabian woman may wear an abaya to proclaim her respectability, but choose an abaya of luxurious material cut close to the body and then accessorize with high heels and a fashionable purse. All the details proclaim sexual desirability, despite the ostensible message of respectability.

Sexual fetishes involving clothing

Because clothing and adornment are closely related to ideas of human sexuality and sexual display, humans may develop clothing fetishes. They may be strongly aroused by the sight of another person wearing clothing and accessories they consider arousing or sexually exciting. Sometimes the object of clothing becomes the object of arousal itself. Fetishes have been documented in every culture and have been recorded throughout history. Common fetishes involving clothing include arousal by or involving shoes, leather, uniforms, or lingerie. Fetishes vary as much as fashion. Sometimes the clothing itself becomes the object of fetish, such as in case with used girl panties in Japan.

Religious habits and special religious clothing

Religious clothing might be considered a special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during the performance of religious ceremonies. However, it may also be worn everyday as a marker for special religious status.
- Christian liturgical clothing (vestments)
- Christian clerical clothing (non-liturgical dress)
- Christian monastic habits
- Buddhist monastic dress
- Orthodox Jewish dress
- Hindu religious dress
- Muslim religious dress

Clothing materials

Common clothing materials include:
- Cloth, typically made of cotton, flax, wool, hemp, ramie, or silk
- Down for down-filled parkas
- Fur
- Leather
- Nylon Less-common clothing materials include:
- Bark
- Paper
- Rubber
- PVC Reinforcing materials such as wood, bone, plastic and metal may be used to stiffen garments such as corsets, bodices, or swimsuits.

Clothing maintenance

Clothing, once manufactured, suffers assault both from within and from without. The human body inside sheds skin cells and body oils, and exudes sweat, urine, and feces. From the outside, sun damage, damp, abrasion, dirt, and other indignities afflict the garment. Fleas and lice take up residence in clothing seams. Well-worn clothing, if not cleaned and refurbished, will smell, itch, look scruffy, and lose functionality (as when buttons fall off and zippers fail). In some cases, people simply wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Cleaning leather presents difficulties; one cannot wash bark cloth (tapa) without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but old leather and bark clothing will always look old. But most clothing consists of cloth, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt). Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering, ranging from the earliest "pound clothes against rocks in running stream" to the latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other than water). In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so skillfully that the darn was practically invisible. When the raw material — cloth — was worth more than labor, it made sense to expend labor in saving it. Today clothing is considered a consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the time it would take to repair it. Many people prefer to buy a new piece of clothing rather than to spend their time mending old clothes. But the thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems.

The life cycle of clothing

Used, no-longer-wearable clothing was once desirable raw material for quilts, rag rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. It could also be recycled into paper. Now it is usually just tossed into the trash. Used but still wearable clothing can be sold at consignment shops, flea markets, online auction, or just donated to charity. Charities usually skim the best of the clothing to sell in their own thrift stores and sell the rest to merchants, who bale it up and ship it to poor Third World countries, where vendors bid for the bales and then make what profit they can selling used clothing.

Early 21st-century clothing styles

Western fashion has to a certain extent become international fashion, as Western media and styles penetrate all parts of the world. Very few parts of the world remain where people do not wear items of cheap, mass-produced Western clothing. Even people in poor countries can afford used clothing from richer Western countries. However, people may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or if carrying out certain roles or occupations. For example, most Japanese women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but will still wear expensive silk kimonos on special occasions. Items of Western dress may also appear worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu. Western fashion, too, does not function monolithically. It comes in many varieties, from expensive haute couture to thrift store grunge.

Mainstream Western or international styles

- International standard business attire -- global in influence, just as business functions globally.
- Haute couture

Regional styles

- Clothing of Europe and Russia
- Clothing in the Americas
- United States mainstream fashion :For example: "Catalogue" fashion, regional styles such as preppy or Western wear.
- United States alternative fashion :These fashions are often associated with fans of various musical styles. :See also Goth, Hippie, Grunge, Hip-hop, and Fetish-wear
- Clothing in Asia
- Clothing in Africa
- Clothing in Oceania

Origin and history of clothing

Clothing in Oceania]] According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing probably consisted of fur, leather, leaves or grass, draped, wrapped or tied about the body for protection from the elements. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia, in 1988. Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking, anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, have conducted a genetic analysis of human body lice that indicates that they originated not more than about 72,000 +/- 42,000 years ago. Since most humans have very sparse body hair, body lice require clothing to survive, so this suggests a surprisingly recent date for the invention of clothing. Its invention may have coincided with the spread of modern Homo sapiens from the warm climate of Africa, thought to have begun between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. (Note that some religions dispute the scientific accounts of human evolution and early history, and embrace accounts of human origins, including the origins of clothing, based on sacred texts or myths. See Traditional accounts of the origin of clothing.) Some human cultures, such as the various peoples of the Arctic Circle, until recently made their clothing entirely of furs and skins, cutting clothing to fit and decorating lavishly. Other cultures have supplemented or replaced leather and skins with cloth: woven, knitted, or twined from various animal and vegetable fibres. See weaving, knitting, and twining. Although modern consumers take clothing for granted, making the fabrics that go into clothing is not easy. One sign of this is that the textile industry was the first to be mechanized during the Industrial Revolution; before the invention of the powered loom, textile production was a tedious and labor-intensive process. Therefore, methods were developed for making most efficient use of textiles. One approach simply involves draping the cloth. Many peoples wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit — for example, the Scottish kilt or the Javanese sarong. Pins or belts hold the garments in place. The precious cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes can wear the garment. Another approach involves cutting and sewing the cloth, but using every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing the clothing. The tailor may cut triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth, and then add them elsewhere as gussets. Traditional European patterns for men's shirts and women's chemises take this approach. Modern European fashion treats cloth much more prodigally, typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; home sewers may turn them into quilts. In the thousands of years that humans have spent constructing clothing, they have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which we can reconstruct from surviving garments, photos, paintings, mosaics, etc., as well as from written descriptions. Costume history serves as a source of inspiration to current fashion designers, as well as a topic of professional interest to costumers constructing for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment.

Future trends

As technologies change, so will clothing.
- Man-made fibers such as nylon, polyester, Lycra, and Gore-Tex already account for much of the clothing market. Many more types of fibers will certainly be developed, possibly using nanotechnology. For example, military uniforms may stiffen when hit by bullets, filter out poisonous chemicals, and treat wounds.
- "Smart" clothing will incorporate electronics. Clothing may incorporate wearable computers, flexible wearable displays (possibly leading to fully animated clothing and some forms of invisibility cloaks), medical sensors, etc.
- Present-day ready-to-wear technologies will presumably give way to computer-aided custom manufacturing. Harmless laser beams (usually white light) will measure the customer; computers will draw up a custom pattern and execute it in the customer's choice of cloth.

Clothing industry

The clothing industry is concentrated outside of western Europe and America, and garment workers often have to labor under poor conditions. Coalitions of NGO's and trade unions like the Clean clothes campaign (CCC) seek to improve these conditions as much as possible by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the workers' plight.

External links

- [http://ipl.si.umich.edu/div/pf/entry/48452 The Internet Public Library - Clothing resources]
- [http://www.marquise.de La Couturière Parisienne]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/2777111.stm Japanese scientist invents 'invisibility coat' - BBC News]
- [http://www.german-hosiery-museum.de/hosiery-museum.htm German Hosiery Museum (English language)]
- [http://ejrs.com/converters/clothesizes.html International Clothes Sizes]
- [http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Kittler.CurBiol.2003.pdf Molecular Evolution of Pediculus humanus and the Origin of Clothing] by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking (PDF file) Category:Human appearance Category:Clothing Category:Consumer goods ja:衣類 simple:Clothing

Bodice

A bodice is an article of clothing for women, covering the body from the neck to the waist. The term comes from pair of bodies (because originally made in two pieces that fasten together, frequently by lacing). In common usage, bodice refers to an upper garment that has removable sleeves, often low-cut, worn in Europe from the sixteenth century to the eighteenth century, either over a corset or in lieu of one. To achieve a fashionable shape and support the bust, the bodice was frequently stiffened with bents (a type of reed), or whalebone. Bodices survive into modern times in the traditional folk dress of many European countries. Bodice continues in use to refer to the upper portion of a one- or two-piece dress to distinguish it from the skirt and sleeves. The bodice of a dress was called the corsage in the nineteenth century).

References

Arnold, Janet: Patterns of Fashion: the cut and construction of clothes for men and women 1560-1620, Macmillan 1985. (ISBN 0896760839) Category:Clothing Category:History of fashion

Coat

Coat can refer to any one of the following:
- Coat (animal), the fur coat of an animal.
- Coat (clothing), an article of clothing for humans.
- Dogcoat, an article of clothing for dogs.

Lingerie

Lingerie is a term, derived from the French language, for women's undergarments. These garments are heavily eroticised in Western culture. Examples of types of items of lingerie include
- Babydoll
- Basque
- Bedjacket
- Bloomers
- Bodystocking
- Bodysuit
- Brassiere
- Camisole
- Chemise
- Corset by bone
- Corselet
- Corsage by elastic
- French maid
- Garter
- Hosiery
- Jersey nightshirt - A long, loose T-shirt made of cotton, polyester, nylon or diaphanous chiffon that can be worn like a Babydoll.
- Knickers
- Leotard
- Merry widow
- Naughty & Nice
- Negligee
- Nightie
- Nightgown
- Nightshirt
- Panties
- Peignoir
- Petticoat
- Undergarment
- Robe
- Slip (Full slip and Half slip)
- Stockings
- Stringbody
- Suspender belt (British), aka Garter belt (US)
- Teddy
- Unitard See also: Hosiery Category:Underwear ja:ランジェリー

Corset

. It features a busk fastening at the front and lacing at the back.]] A corset is a garment worn to mold and shape the torso into a desired shape for aesthetic or orthopaedic purposes (either for the duration of wearing it, or with a more lasting effect). Both men and women have worn – and still wear – corsets.

Corsetry

The skill of making corsets is known as corsetry, as is the general wearing of them. Someone who makes corsets is a corsetier (for a man) or corsetière (for a woman), or sometimes simply a corsetmaker. The word corsetry is sometimes also used as a collective plural form of corset.

Uses

The most common use of corsets is to slim the body and make it conform to a fashionable silhouette. For women this most frequently emphasises a curvy figure, by reducing the waist, and thereby exaggerating the bust and hips. However, in some periods, corsets have been worn to achieve a tubular straight-up-and-down shape, which involves minimising the bust and hips. For men, corsets are more customarily used to slim the figure. However, there was a period from around 1820 to 1835 when an hourglass figure (a small, nipped-in look to the waist) was also desirable for men; this was sometimes achieved by wearing a corset. waist of fashion, and the poor girl that relies on her figure to make a good impression, is sorely put to it, if nature has denied her the shape of a wasp or if she has not learned to rely on physical exercise to model her frame. A vigorous walk of ten miles a day, supplemented by ten minutes of lung gymnastics, would do wonders for her.]] A corset encloses the torso, usually extending from under the arms to the hips. Some corsets extend over the hips and, in very rare instances, reach the knees. A shorter kind of corset, which covers the waist area (from below the ribs to just above the hips), is called a 'waist cincher'. A corset may also include garters to hold up stockings (alternatively a separate garter belt may be worn for that). Normally a corset supports the visible dress, and spreads the pressure from large dresses, such as the crinoline and bustle. Sometimes the corset has been supported by a corset cover.

Construction

Corsets are typically constructed of a flexible material (like cloth or leather) stiffened with boning (also called ribs or stays) inserted into channels in the cloth or leather. In the Victorian period, steel and whalebone were favored. Plastic is now the most commonly used material; spring or spiral steel is preferred for high-quality corsets. Other materials used for boning include ivory, wood, and cane. (By contrast, a girdle is usually made of elasticized fabric, without boning.) Corsets are held together by lacing, usually at the back. Tightening or loosening the lacing produces corresponding changes in the firmness of the corset. It is difficult — although not impossible — for a back-laced corset-wearer to do his or her own lacing. In the Victorian heyday of corsets, a well-to-do woman would be laced by her maid, a gentleman by his valet. However, many corsets also had a buttoned or hooked front opening called a busk. Once the lacing was adjusted comfortably, it was possible to leave the lacing as adjusted and take the corset on and off using the front opening (This removal method does not work if the corset is not sufficiently loose, and can potentially damage the busk). Self-lacing is also incompatible with tightlacing, which strives for the utmost possible reduction of the waist. Current tightlacers, lacking servants, are usually laced by spouses and partners.

Waist reduction

By wearing a tightly-laced corset for extended periods, known as tightlacing, men and women can learn to tolerate extreme waist constriction and reduce their natural waist size. Tightlacers usually aim for 40 to 43 centimeter (16 to 17 inch) waists. The Guinness Book of World Records records two instances of women reducing to 15 inch waists: Ethel Granger and Cathie Jung. Other women, such as Polaire, also claim to have achieved such reductions. These are extreme cases. Corsets were and are usually designed for support, with freedom of body movement an important consideration in their design. Present day corset-wearers usually tighten the corset just enough to reduce their waists by 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches); it is very difficult to achieve as much as 15 centimeters (6 inches).

Corset comfort

Polaire In the past, a woman's corset was usually worn over a garment called a chemise or shift, a sleeveless low-necked gown made of washable material (usually cotton or linen). It absorbed perspiration and kept the corset and the gown clean. In modern times, an undershirt or corset liner may be worn. Moderate lacing is not incompatible with vigorous activity. Indeed, during the second half of the nineteenth century, when corset wearing was common, there were sport corsets specifically designed to wear while bicycling, playing tennis, or horseback riding, as well as for maternity wear. Many people now believe that all corsets are uncomfortable and that wearing them restricted women's lives, citing Victorian literature devoted to sensible or hygienic dress. However, these writings were most apt to protest against the misuse of corsets for tightlacing; they were less vehement against corsets per se. Many reformers recommended "Emancipation bodices", which were essentially tightly-fitted vests, like full-torso corsets without boning. See Victorian dress reform. Some modern day corset-wearers will testify that corsets can be comfortable, once one is accustomed to wearing them. A properly fitted corset should be comfortable. Women active in the Society for Creative Anachronism and historical reenactment groups commonly wear corsets as part of period costume, without complaint.

Modern history

historical reenactment historical reenactment The corset fell from fashion in the 1920s in Europe and America, replaced by girdles and elastic brassieres, but survived as an article of costume. Originally an item of lingerie, the corset has become a popular item of outerwear in the fetish, BDSM and goth subcultures. In the fetish and BDSM literature, there is often much emphasis on tightlacing. In this case, the corset may still be underwear rather than outerwear. Another angle is the wearing of a corset while having an enema; the theory is that the corset prevents the belly distending, enhancing the effects of the enema. (Putting on the corset after giving the enema will almost certainly cause the enema to be expelled.) There was a brief revival of the corset in the late 1940s and early 1950s, in the form of the waist cincher. This was used to give the hourglass figure dictated by Christian Dior's 'New Look'. However, use of the waist cincher was restricted to haute couture, and most women continued to use girdles. This revival was brief, as the New Look gave way to a less dramatically-shaped silhouette. Since the late 1980s, the corset has experienced periodic revivals, which have usually originated in haute couture and which have occasionally trickled through to mainstream fashion. These revivals focus on the corset as an item of outerwear rather than underwear. The strongest of these revivals was seen in the Autumn 2001 fashion collections and coincided with the release of the film Moulin Rouge!, the costumes for which featured many corsets. The majority of garments sold as corsets during these recent revivals cannot really be counted as corsets at all. While they often feature lacing and boning, and generally mimic a historical style of corset, they have very little effect on the shape of the wearer's body.

Advantages and disadvantages of corsets

- Corsets can reduce pain and improve function for people with back problems or other muscular/skeletal disorders.
- Some large-breasted women find corsets more comfortable than brassieres, because the weight of the breasts is carried by the whole corset rather than the brassiere's shoulder straps. (Straps can chafe or cut the skin.)
- Corsets can instantly improve the figure without dieting, slimming drugs, or cosmetic surgery.
- Due to their tightness and close proximity to the body, corsets can make the wearer feel very warm. They have been most often worn in cool climates.
- The best corsets are custom made and personally-fitted. The more closely clothing or lingerie clings to the body, the more carefully it must be fitted to look and feel right. In modern times, when labour costs much more than materials, custom clothing can be extremely expensive. Even finding a competent corsetiere can be difficult.
- A badly-fitting corset can chafe, impede digestion, damage ribs and pinch nerves.

Types and styles

The various types of corsets include:
- Bondage corset or discipline corset
- Hourglass corset
- Redresseur corset
- Training corset
- Waist cincher Styles include:
- Wasp waist

Media

References and further reading

- Valerie Steele, The Corset: A Cultural History. Yale University Press, 2001, ISBN 0300099533
- Larry Utley, Autumn Carey-Adamme, Fetish Fashion: Undressing the Corset Green Candy Press, 2002. ISBN 1931160066
- Two doctors' opinions and advice on corset wearing can be found at the website of the [http://www.staylace.com/medicaladvice/medical.htm Long Island Staylace Association]. At the same site, Dr. Ann Beaumont has published the series [http://www.staylace.com/medicaladvice/med_cthb.htm "Corseting the Human Body"].
- [http://www.corsetinformation.com Website containing information and photographs about corsets & corseting through the ages, including celebrity photographs]

External links

- [http://www.corsetinformation.com Corset Information Website]
- [http://www.corsetconnection.com/lacingvideo.htm How to Lace an Authentic Corset]
- [http://www.staylace.com/resourcelist/diction.htm Dictionary of Corset-related Words and Terms]
- [http://www.electrasweb.com/corsets/ Overview of the corset]
- [http://www.fathom.com/course/21701726/index.html The Secret History of the Corset and Crinoline], a seminar by the Victoria and Albert Museum
- [http://www.corsets-4u.co.uk/history_of_corsets.html History of Corsets]
- [http://www.corsetinformation.com/ History and modern day corseting and how-to]
- [http://www.corsetted.com/ Overview site]
- [http://www.sylphide.de/estart.htm Modern day tight lacing]
- [http://www.corsets.de/node79.html The Corset Controversy]
- [http://www.staylace.com/gallery/index.html Corset Image Gallery]

Corset making

- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Ladies_Corset_Training Yahoo group 'Ladies Corset Training']
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Your_Corset_Academy Yahoo group 'Your Corset Academy']
- [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Design/Fashion/Corsetry/Makers/ dmoz.org Corsetmakers]
- [http://www.livejournal.com/userinfo.bml?user=corsetmakers Corset Makers LJ Group]
- [http://www.livejournal.com/userinfo.bml?user=corsetry Corsetry LJ Group]
- [http://www.livejournal.com/community/corsetmakers/114848.html#cutid1 Corset Patterning Resource Sites (Free)] Category:Body modification Category:Corsetry Category:Clothing Category:Fetish clothing Category:Underwear Category:History of fashion ja:コルセット simple:Corset

Category:History of fashion

Category for articles on the history of fashion, and historical clothing styles by period. Category:Clothing Category:Fashion

Speculation about the papal conclave, 2005

The text below featured in the Papal conclave, 2005 article prior to the election of Pope Benedict XVI. It reflects the contemporary views of, and up to, 19 April 2005.

Speculation

19 April cardinals who expect their election, he had not had his hair cut for the conclave.]] The period leading up to a conclave has always been accompanied by intense speculation by pundits and the general public as to the identity of the new Pope, despite the fact that it has been deemed impossible for people outside the Vatican to make such predictions correctly. Historically, many deemed to be leading candidates were not chosen. Nevertheless, speculation around this conclave was as intense as ever, and is concentrating on two possibilities: a return to the tradition of Italian Popes, or the election of a Pope from Latin America. Media speculation, particularly in the non-Catholic press, tended to describe the election as a contest between personalities, political ideologies or geographical regions. The Catholic Church's official position was that Cardinals sincerely believe the most important criterion for the new Pope to be holiness, and also that they would be guided by the Holy Spirit, through prayer, to make a choice which is in accordance with God's will. "People think that we are going to vote like in an election," said Óscar Andrés Cardinal Rodríguez of Honduras shortly before the conclave began. "But this is something completely different. We are going to listen to the Lord and listen to the Holy Spirit." There has been speculation since the 1990s about who the next pope would be, and names of possible candidates had been floated in the press. These were unofficially known as the papabili, an Italian word which roughly translates as able to be made pope. Some of the favorites included Francis Arinze (Roman Curia, originally from Nigeria), Dionigi Tettamanzi (Archbishop of Milan, Italy), Jorge Mario Bergoglio (Archbishop of Buenos Aires, Argentina), Óscar Rodríguez Maradiaga (Archbishop of Tegucigalpa, Honduras), Jean-Marie Lustiger (former Archbishop of Paris, France), and Cláudio Hummes (Archbishop of Sao Paulo, Brazil). Early speculation, before John Paul II's final illness and death, drew attention to the fact that of the five nations with the largest Catholic populations, only one, Italy, is European. Forty-six percent of the world's Catholics are in Latin America; the Philippines have more Catholics than Italy; some 120 million Catholics live in Africa. Yet 35 percent of the voting cardinals either officially represent an Italian diocese or work for the Vatican administration, the Curia. [http://slate.msn.com/id/2089815/#ContinueArticle].

For the complete list of papabili, please see Papabili, 2005 Papal Conclave

Analysis

Papabili, 2005 Papal Conclave for the opening of the papal conclave.]] The following presumptions and hypotheses are among those being put forward by current vaticanologists:
- After the long reign of John Paul II, the cardinals may prefer the next pontificate to be brief and transitional. An older candidate, whose papacy would be expected to be shorter than a younger candidate, may find favor as a "transitional pope," giving the church time to consider the future and a chance to elect the succeeding pope relatively soon. This strategy could work in favor of a "safe" and unsurprising choice, on the premise that a bolder choice might be taken next time. Or perhaps the surprise and novelty of a pope from Africa or Latin America might be moderated and made to seem less of a departure if he were old and expected to reign for a relatively short time. In general, an older pope is seen as an acceptable compromise between the "Italian" and "Third World" factions. The cardinals will be mindful, however, of the potential for such a strategy to backfire: John XXIII, who was selected for his age as a "transitional pope", turned out to be one of the most influential popes in recent times, taking the bold and unexpected step of convening the Second Vatican Council.
- It is thought unlikely, given the college's current composition, that the new choice will hold surprising theological opinions; all but three of the electors, after all, were appointed by John Paul II. However, many commentators believe that will be a strong push for "collegiality," for a pope who will reduce the power of the Vatican curia and delegate more freedom to individual diocese and national bishops' conferences. Hence the conventional wisdom holds that the new pope will continue the generally doctrinally conservative course of John Paul II but will be more open-minded in his views on church governance. Likewise, curial candidates may have a hard time being elected in this conclave. At present, only a quarter of the cardinal electors are curial administrators; three-fourths are pastoral cardinals, archbishops of large dioceses — a higher proportion than they have sometimes been in the past. A cardinal who has had both a curial and pastoral career, such as Francis Arinze and Ivan Dias, may be able to gather support from both groups.
- Cardinals who are well respected and influential within the college often play the role of “kingmaker” or "grand elector", intriguing on behalf of their candidate of choice. Franz Cardinal Koenig famously played the role of kingmaker in the conclave that elected John Paul II. In the 2005 conclave, Cardinals Julián Herranz, Carlo Martini, Joseph Ratzinger, Giovanni Re, Camillo Ruini, and Angelo Sodano are seen as the likely kingmakers. Although some of these cardinals are also mentioned as papabili, the roles of kingmaker and candidate are traditionally mutually exclusive. For example, in the conclave of August 1978, Giovanni Cardinal Benelli, widely considered papabile, effectively removed himself from consideration in order to secure the election of his preferred candidate, Albino Cardinal Luciani. Benelli was therefore kingmaker to John Paul I. Ratzinger, Dean of the College of Cardinals and for years one of John Paul II's closest associates, was at first considered too old and controversial to be a leading candidate and assumed instead to be the conclave's most influential "grand elector"; but in recent days much media speculation has put him back in the running as a front-runner papabile.
- Italian cardinals may wish to see the election of another Italian pope and so may rally around one unified Italian choice, rather than as in 1978 split into rival factions, allowing the selection of a non-Italian. (Media reports suggest that Cardinal Tettamanzi of Milan may well be the unified Italian candidate.) One should keep in mind how historically rare non-Italian popes are; the last non-Italian to ascend to the position before John Paul II was Pope Adrian VI almost 500 years ago (1522–1523). However, there is still a great deal of division between cardinals from north Italy and cardinals from south Italy; the northerners prefer Giovanni Battista Re of Brescia, while the southerners want Crescenzio Sepe of Grado, who organized the Great Jubilee in 2000.
- The selection of a pope from the United States is, as always, seen as unlikely, since a pope hailing from the world's primary power might be seen to compromise the Vatican's independence. (Many observers, indeed, warn that American pope might be actively mistrusted in some parts of the world, where there would be suspicion that the CIA had rigged his election or that Wall Street had bought it.)
- Although Cardinal Lustiger, the former Archbishop of Paris, has often been named as one of the papabile, a few commentators also doubt that a pope would be chosen from France, which is at the heart of the current doubts and angst about Catholicism's place in Western Europe — a country with huge numbers of nominal Catholics who are in practice disenchanted with the church's conservative bent and leading increasingly secular lives. In addition, Lustiger, born a Jew, converted to Catholicism. On the one hand, some Jews see converts unfavorably, and this choice may thus play against the improved relationships between the Catholic Church and Jews that John Paul II promoted; on the other hand, Lustiger being of Jewish origin and being a strong supporter of Israel may enhance these relations. Furthermore, a pope perceived to be pro-Israeli may damage the image of neutrality of the Catholic Church in countries where the population is majority anti-Israeli, especially those where Christians are a minority.
- A Latin American pope is a strong possibility, and would be the first in history. A likewise historical African or Asian pope is not thought likely from this conclave, unless perhaps Francis Arinze, who has spent his recent career not in Africa but in Italy with the curia, is chosen.
- Different groups within the church are affiliated with certain cardinals, who are likely to consider the interests of these groups as they cast their votes. Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne of Lima is a member of Opus Dei; Miloslav Vlk of Prague is a known promoter of the Focolare Movement. Norberto Rivera Carrera is known to be close to the Legionaries of Christ, Angelo Scola was formerly an adherent of Comunione e Liberazione, and Dionigi Tettamanzi is reportedly a supporter of both Opus Dei and the more liberal Community of Sant'Egidio. Francisco Javier Errazuriz Ossa of Santiago de Chile has long been affiliated with the Schoenstatt Movement. Jorge Mario Bergoglio of Buenos Aires, a Jesuit priest, would be the first Jesuit pope in papal history if selected.
- Although, after the vast worldwide popularity of the media-savvy and globe-trotting John Paul II, it is thought likely that the cardinals will opt for somebody somewhat quieter, languages may still be an important consideration. Italian, the language of the Vatican, is an essential; English, rapidly becoming a worldwide lingua franca, and Spanish, the language of most Latin American Catholics, are also important. Otherwise considered a front-runner, Diogini Tettamanzi may suffer in this respect.
- In one of the more controversial changes to the papal election process, if there is no clear winner after a certain number of votes, its possible for someone to win with a majority instead of a two-thirds vote. This has caused some to fear of the possibility of a polarized election where the winner does not appear to have the mandate of a large number of cardinals. At this time this outcome is generally not foreseen for this conclave.

Historical considerations

- The newly elected pope often contrasts dramatically with his predecessor, a tendency expressed by the Italian axiom "After a fat pope, a lean pope." Indeed, every twentieth-century Pope was in some notable respect very different from the Pope who came before him. For example, the controversial one-time populist turned conservative, long-lived Pope Pius IX (1846–1878) was succeeded by the aristocratic diplomatic Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903). Nor does the fact that 113 of the 115 cardinal-electors who will participate in the 2005 conclave were appointed by John Paul II mean that a new pope will be similar to John Paul. Though vaticanologists regard the current College of Cardinals as conservative, past history (the 1878, 1903 and 1958 conclaves) does not support the theory that a college of cardinals, even if picked by a pope clearly identified as conservative or liberal, and presumed to share his theological outlook, will necessarily vote for someone fitting the same category. Past cardinals have often voted for someone radically different to the pope who appointed them: few expected Angelo Roncalli to be chosen by a conclave many of whose cardinal-electors had been chosen by Pope Pius XII. From these examples, it would appear that a cardinal who shares John Paul II's views or leadership style, or who is closely associated with his papacy, is less likely to be elected. History would suggest the selection of someone less theological and charismatic, a more administrative pope, given that John Paul II was noted more for being a thinker and world leader than an administrator.
- According to the old saying, "He who enters the conclave as pope leaves it as cardinal." A man who enters the conclave certain of victory in the election is often not the man finally selected to be pope. In 1978, Sergio Cardinal Pignedoli, who was seen as a strong contender for the papacy, was reported to have gone on a crash diet to fit the papal cassock. Instead Albino Luciani, who was so convinced that he would not be elected that he never got his hair cut (as his official portrait showed) and whose feet were so swollen he could not wear new shoes bought for him by his family, was elected.
- Cardinals are not restricted to electing a pope from among themselves. In theory any baptized Roman Catholic male, and certainly any member of its clergy, is eligible for election. While the odds on that are slim (the last man not already a cardinal at the time of his election was Pope Urban VI, who served from 1378 to 1389), Giovanni Montini (later Pope Paul VI) is rumored to have received some votes in the 1958 conclave, even though at that stage he was still only Archbishop of Milan, having been denied the expected red hat by Pope Pius XII. It is possible that some archbishop who cardinals believe should have been appointed to the College of Cardinals but who may have been overlooked by John Paul II, possibly because the late pope was too ill at the end to hold another consistory to appoint new cardinals, might be chosen. Noted vaticanologist John Allen of the National Catholic Reporter has speculated that Italian Archbishop Angelo Comastri is a non-cardinal who could receive votes in the 2005 conclave.
- The exclusion of cardinals over the age of eighty from participating in the conclave as electors is a relatively recent development. Cardinal-electors may always elect one of the cardinals who cannot vote because they are over eighty years of age. The likeliest reason for such a choice would be inability to agree on a younger candidate. Also, a radical step like an African or Latin American pope might be tempered by attempting to ensure that the new pontificate would be relatively short, by choosing one of the older such cardinals, such as the widely respected former Dean, Bernardin Cardinal Gantin.
- Only three of the current voting cardinals (William Wakefield Baum, Joseph Ratzinger and Jaime Sin) participated in the last conclaves in 1978. Cardinal Sin is absent from this conclave.

Not considered papabile when elected

1978
- Giuseppe Cardinal Sarto (elected as Pius X in 1903)
- Achille Cardinal Ratti (elected as Pius XI in 1922)
- Angelo Giuseppe Cardinal Roncalli (elected as John XXIII in 1958)
- Albino Cardinal Luciani (elected as John Paul I in 1978)
- Karol Cardinal Wojtyła (elected as John Paul II in 1978) : Pope John Paul I actually predicted Cardinal Wojtyła — the future John Paul II — would succeed him, and Jean Cardinal Villot predicted in May 1978 that only Wojtyła could gain the support of two-thirds of the cardinal electors.

Widely considered papabile when elected

- Giacomo Cardinal della Chiesa (elected as Benedict XV in 1914)
- Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli (elected as Pius XII in 1939)
- Giovanni Battista Cardinal Montini (elected as Paul VI in 1963)
- Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (elected as Benedict XVI in 2005)

Heavily favored papabile but not elected

- Giuseppe Cardinal Siri - "Guaranteed" to win in 1958, 1963, and twice in 1978 but never did
- Giovanni Cardinal Benelli - "Certain" to replace his friend Pope John Paul I in October 1978, but passed over for Karol Cardinal Wojtyła
- Mariano Cardinal Rampolla - Pope Leo XIII's Secretary of State. He was headed for victory in the 1903 conclave only to be vetoed by Krakow Bishop Jan Maurycy Pawel Cardinal Puzyna de Kosielsko on behalf of Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph I. With Rampolla blocked, Giuseppe Cardinal Sarto was elected and became Pope Pius X. One of Pius' first acts was to abolish the rights of states to veto.
- Dionigi Tettamanzi - Speculated by some media reports as a highly favoured successor to John Paul II but did not gain a substantial amount of votes in the 2005 papal conclave.

Dioceses that produced popes in the 20th and 21st centuries

- Venice, Italy: 3 (Pope Pius X, Pope John XXIII, Pope John Paul I)
- Milan, Italy: 2 (Pope Pius XI, Pope Paul VI)
- Bologna, Italy: 1 (Pope Benedict XV)
- Kraków, Poland: 1 (Pope John Paul II)
- Munich, Germany: 1 (Pope Benedict XVI)
- Rome, Italy: 1 (Pope Pius XII) Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli, serving in the Roman Curia, was incardinated in the Diocese of Rome.

Previous experience of 20th and 21st century Popes

- Archbishop, past curial experience: 5 (Leo XIII, Benedict XV, Pius XI, John XXIII, Paul VI)
- Archbishop, no curial experience: 3 (Pius X, John Paul I, John Paul II)
- Curial cardinal, no pastoral experience: 1 (Pius XII)
- Curial cardinal, past pastoral experience: 1 (Benedict XVI)

Age of 20th and 21st century popes at election

Average age: 66
- Pope Pius X: 68
- Pope Benedict XV: 59
- Pope Pius XI: 64
- Pope Pius XII: 63
- Pope John XXIII: 76
- Pope Paul VI: 65
- Pope John Paul I: 65
- Pope John Paul II: 58
- Pope Benedict XVI: 78 See List of ages of popes for further details including pre-20th century popes. Category:2005 Papal conclave Category:Pope John Paul II

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